- 9 лет ago
- Published в: Last winner ethereum
- 2
- Автор: Moogurn
Conceptualizing a close relationship between PHC and public health measures [ 11 ], its great promise was unfulfilled, especially for LMICs where donor countries drove development assistance priorities with disease-specific initiatives [ 12 ]. Consequently, the role of medical care was well appreciated while health policy analysts from LMICs, ahead of their high-income country HIC counterparts in attempting to bring integrated thinking to the development of health systems [ 13 ], enjoyed little support.
In particular, numerous critics drew attention to serious inequity in PHC delivery and management [ 14 , 15 ]. The WHO Commission on Social Determinants of Health — drew attention to extreme health inequities between and within countries; its final report contained recommendations to improve daily living conditions, tackle the inequitable distribution of power, money, and resources, and to assess the impacts of interventions [ 16 ]. Subsequent frameworks have been developed to educate health professionals about addressing social determinants [ 17 ].
Methodology Keeping in view this historical evolution, we build our thesis on the collective experience of the co-authors and a scoping review conducted by co-author LS to explore the available literature on the public health challenges being faced by LMICs and role of SPHs in responding to these challenges. Three hundred thirty-six articles of the database hits were retained. These articles were assessed for inclusion criteria, and 46 articles were included.
Data extraction and analysis confirmed public health education, public health research, and partnerships as themes that reflect the role of SPHs in LMICs. We supplemented the scoping review with reference searching and grey literature to identify additionally relevant articles and explored examples of SPHs in LMICs. This paper synthesizes the literature to first detail the public health challenges faced by LMICs, followed by ways SPHs provide a direction to address these challenges.
In this paper we adopt an all-encompassing definition of Schools of Public Health as post-secondary departments, institutions, or centers organizing the provision of formative and lifelong public health education for professional development through competency-based curricula, comprehensive public and population health programs, and teaching pedagogies involving inter- and multidisciplinary professionals including those from administration and management background and teams in multi-level, inter-sectoral partnerships for collaborative research and development initiatives.
We conclude with discussion on key issues to address in the development of SPHs. Main text Public health challenges being faced by LMICs LMICs are layered with health burdens rooted in complex political, economic, social, environmental, and demographic realties that shape the functionality of SPHs and their role in addressing population health needs [ 20 ]. These challenges include poor health governance and fragile health systems, mass displacements associated with acute and recurrent conflicts and natural disasters, rapid urbanization, environmental degradation, unfair terms of global trade, international financial systems undermining capacity for equitable growth and epidemiological transitions characterized by persistent infectious disease and emerging non-communicable disease burdens [ 16 , 20 — 23 ].
Poor health system governance results in population health needs and health spending priorities being demoted, typically in favor of military spending and the interests of political elites with roots in corruption [ 24 — 28 ]. Additionally, restrictive trade agreements with HICs often facilitated by the World Trade Organization and the conditions attached to structural adjustment loans administered to LMICs limit the policy space and capacity of governments, undermining their ability to address health system and population health concerns [ 29 — 31 ].
For example, intellectual property rules in free trade agreements have increased prices of previously affordable generic drugs in LMICs such as Jordan and Guatemala [ 32 ], thus compromising the availability and affordability of medicines for their health systems.
In addition, multinational corporations exert powerful influences on population health from production and market manipulation to selling of lethal and unhealthy products [ 33 ]. Low investment in rural agricultural economies, political instability and conflict, and degrading environmental conditions result in rural to urban movement of economic migrants and mass uprooting of internally displaced persons IDPs and refugees who exert a high pressure on the infrastructure and health systems of the country and its neighbors [ 22 , 24 , 26 , 30 — 32 , 34 , 35 ].
In Syria for example, additional to conflict-driven displacement, thousands of rural Syrians employed in the agricultural sector were forced to migrate to cities in when a persistent drought coupled with ineffective environmental policies compromised their livelihood [ 24 ]. As of January , over 4. Although cities offer greater access to improved living standards, social services, employment, and security as compared to rural areas [ 29 , 36 ], rapid population growth, which is expected to be concentrated in LMICs, pushes services and infrastructure beyond capacity, exposing the populations to overcrowding, water scarcity, inadequate sanitation, food insecurity, poverty and unemployment [ 24 , 37 — 40 ].
Considering the unprecedented growth of these diseases and their risk factors, in more than world governments adopted a political declaration and an action plan for reducing premature deaths caused by NCDs by [ 37 ]. In virtual opposition to this accord, transnational corporations use trade and investment agreements to pressure LMICs governments against the implementation of health-protective policies, such as sale restrictions on health-damaging commodities e.
SPHs in LMICs have enormous potential to improve health, but not without first overcoming challenges to education and research imposed by scarce resources, antithetical context e. From external sources, funding has long been program or disease-specific, thereby limiting the agency of local faculty to focus research on contextually specific health issues with attention to a broader array of determinants and with a multidisciplinary perspective.
This traditional funding model fails to nurture the infrastructure, administrative skills, and leadership capacities necessary to empower faculty and staff e. SPHs can develop educational programs that will graduate new cadres of health professionals with appropriate skill sets. Of noticeable comparative absence is public health expertise [ 53 , 55 , 56 ], which may reflect the scarcity of SPHs as compared to nursing and medical schools that have expanded in countries such as Pakistan [ 10 , 57 , 58 ].
There are also gaps in the availability of public health programs that address specific LMIC health issues, as is the case in South Asia. Education is even less accessible for students from rural areas, lower social classes, and minority groups [ 53 ]. Low or middle-income Asian countries, with a population of approximately 4. The responsibilities of SPHs are delivered by different academic public health entities that vary in their structure e. Therefore, it is important to note that a department or an institute, of community medicine for example, may be fulfilling the responsibilities of an SPH without the title.
Public health professionals require expertise in public health concepts and context-specific determinants of health as well as the leadership and teamwork qualities to conduct multidisciplinary research that identifies, assesses, and addresses health issues with strong social justice and equity values [ 44 , 63 ]. However, existing curricula often fail to integrate competencies that anticipate and respond to these evolving professional requirements [ 44 , 48 , 49 , 64 ].
LMICs with weak research systems are limited in their ability to identify and prioritize population health needs, and in turn, unable to investigate and intervene on their determinants [ 48 , 49 , 65 — 67 ]. The majority of LMIC governments do not invest in health research, partly because the public and policymakers are not fully aware of its value [ 50 , 66 , 68 , 69 ]. Moreover, foreign funding is often program or disease-specific and arrives in the company of conditions that do not always match local priorities.
Research priorities thus fail to translate into action due to varied political interests and unresponsive bureaucracies of the recipient countries [ 70 ]. Beyond imposed research agendas, faculty of SPHs in LMICs often work in intellectual isolation with limited career options, low salaries, overburdened workloads, and underdeveloped supervision and mentorship skills [ 44 , 46 , 50 , 51 , 60 , 71 — 73 ].
Such conditions encourage the growth of and reliance on consultancies amongst academic staff, deter future generations from pursuing research and perpetuate dependence on public health education from HIC SPHs through individually funded programs [ 46 , 49 , 50 , 74 , 75 ].
The pattern of faculty taking on individual consultancies with international organizations to compensate for low academic salaries can stunt institutional capacity by distracting faculty from academic research, teaching, and mentorship responsibilities as well as perpetuating donor control of research design, data, and publication [ 76 ].
Finally, much public health education and research is conducted from units within faculties or departments of medicine, which limits access to resources for training and research in population-oriented studies, narrows the multidisciplinary perspective needed and subordinates the public health perspective to the clinical gaze in the political hierarchies of the institution [ 45 ].
Partnership between researchers and policymakers is complex, and is often associated with discordance and disconnect [ 52 , 77 ]. Researchers must be aware of how competing factors inundate policymaking processes. It is incumbent that these future jobs will be good-paying American union scale wage and benefit jobs that protect salaries and our critical health and safety standards.
The members of the UAW, current and future, are ready to build these electric cars and trucks and the batteries that go in them. That includes a strong nationwide greenhouse gas emissions standard, continued investments in charging infrastructure, and broad consumer incentives for all electric vehicle purchases. And we support stringent GHG and fuel economy standards that are aligned and encourage continued improvements.
With the right complementary policies in place, the auto industry is poised to accept the challenge of driving EV purchases to between 40 and 50 percent of new vehicle sales by the end of the decade. Federal and state governments—and all stakeholders—will need to provide significant support for consumers, infrastructure and innovation.
But all levels of government will need to do their part for this challenge to succeed. Future GHG rules aligned with industry investment, and supportive governmental policies will be essential to significantly reducing GHG emissions, while maintaining a vital U. We urge the Biden Administration and policymakers to continue advancing measures that will support the broad and equitable consumer adoption of electric-drive vehicles and that align environmental progress, vehicle affordability, and U.
The climate emergency demands no less.
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In this context, the ACA provides an important opportunity for health departments to forge new and stronger partnerships with the health care delivery system. The prominence of the focus on clinical care delivery was viewed by the committee as detracting from the ability of public health to take on other activities that are important for its mission and that others are less able to accomplish.
However, the important and continued need for safety net services in many communities will require coordination between public health departments and public and private clinical care providers. The organization of public health departments is critical for their successful functioning. Many public health departments are too small to possess the foundational capabilities and to deliver the package of public health services needed for them to be fully operational and meet minimum performance measures or gain accreditation.
Arrangements that would leverage economies of scale for public health departments face multiple barriers, but there are various ways to help small departments to work with others to achieve greater capacity, such as consolidation and sharing resources Kaufman, ; Libbey and Miyahara, The approaches that the committee recommends for reforming current financing will likely foster organizational and infrastructure changes.
Those changes alone, however, will not place governmental public health in a position to maximize its contribution to the efficient achievement of better health for the nation in the 21st century. Additional funding, to which the committee turns in Chapter 4 , will also be required. In the next chapter, the committee describes tools needed to monitor and build organization and programmatic change and to assess the level of funding that will be required.
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